like a skilled physician administering a dangerous medicine, who uses it only where appropriate, when needed, and only to the extent needed.”

I say: These are Abū Hāmid’s words. Despite his knowledge of speculative theology and philosophy and his profound involvement in them, he reports the agreement of the early generations of Ahl al-Sunnah in condemning speculative theology, mentions the disagreement of those who opposed them, and explains that its only benefit is to defend the beliefs prescribed by revelation that the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, conveyed to his community. If its only benefit is to defend these beliefs, it cannot oppose them, let alone take precedence over them. Thus, acceptable rational argument in speculative theology cannot contradict the Quran and Sunnah. Whatever does contradict the Quran and Sunnah must belong to false, rejected speculative theology, whose condemnation no Muslim disputes: neither the early generations and the imams, nor any of the later believers versed in speculative theology and philosophy, who know what is acceptable and what must be rejected, and what deserves praise and what deserves condemnation. Whoever accepts and praises such discourse is an adherent of false, blameworthy speculative theology, as all these agree.

Moreover, the early generations and the imams condemn whatever is false in speculative theology, rational arguments, and disputation, even when intended to support the Quran and Sunnah. They therefore condemn anyone who counters one innovation with another, or one unsound argument with another. How much more, then, must they condemn someone who counters the Sunnah with innovation, opposes truth with falsehood, and disputes Allah’s signs with falsehood in order to refute the truth!