direction, space, nor place. Rather, He is above every existing space, direction, place, and all else—glorified and exalted is He.

[The second argument]

It may be said: Suppose an opponent were to challenge you and say:

“Even if direction exists, it is something He has created and made. It depends upon Him, whereas He has no need of it. If, for example, the Throne is called a direction, a place, and a space, Allah Most High is its Lord and Creator. The Throne depends upon Allah as a created thing depends upon its Creator, whereas Allah has no need of it in any respect. His being above the Throne, and above what is called a direction, a place, or a space—even if it exists—does not establish for that created thing an eminence greater than the eminence of Allah Most High.”

This is an answer that someone who affirms the existence of a void and regards it as brought into being by Allah Most High might offer.

[The third argument]

Since He is high above what is called a direction or a place, He is higher than it. Thus, whatever eminence and elevation that existing thing may possess, intrinsically or incidentally, the elevation—the elevation of Allah—is more perfect than it.

[The fourth argument]

It may be said: We do not concede that elevation attained by virtue of direction belongs to direction intrinsically and to anything else incidentally. Direction is subordinate to something else, whether it exists or does not exist, and its elevation follows the elevation of that which is high by virtue of it. How, then, can elevation belong intrinsically to what is subordinate, but incidentally to that on which it depends?!

Our expression “high by virtue of direction” is like saying “high by virtue of elevation,” “knowing by virtue of knowledge,” or “powerful by virtue of power”; or saying “high in rank” or “high in dominion.” Thus, there is nothing in this that