because self-evident truths are the foundation of propositions established through theoretical reasoning. If such propositions could be used to challenge self-evident truths, even though their own validity depends on the validity of those truths, this would undermine their own foundation. Thus, challenging self-evident truths through theoretical propositions would entail the invalidity of those propositions. Once invalidated, they could no longer serve as grounds for that challenge—which is precisely the point to be established.

This and similar considerations show that no argument from the deniers against such a self-evident proposition is to be entertained. The invalidity of the arguments offered against it is then demonstrated.

[Response to al-Rāzī’s statement: The first point]

One may say:

It is well known that this is denied only by those who say that Allah is neither inside the world nor outside it, and who deny that Allah Himself is above the world. They say:

“If He were above the Throne, He would be spatially separate from it and could be pointed to.”

They regard this as impossible. They therefore allow that two beings may exist without either being separate from the other or within it, and that an independently existing being may exist that cannot be pointed to. They say:

“The Creator is neither separate from the world nor interpenetrating it.”

A group of philosophers say the same concerning the intellects and the rational soul whose existence they affirm. They hold two views concerning the celestial soul.