This conception, then, is a recognized phenomenon in humans and animals. They call it “estimation” and say that it arises through a faculty called the estimative faculty.

People disagree over whether animal perception and action—such as hearing, sight, thinking, reason, and other kinds of conception and action, whether involving a conception of friendship, hostility, or something else—arise through powers within the animal. The first view is that of the majority; the second is held by those who say that a human being has no power that actually affects what lies within his capacity.

Those who hold the first view are themselves divided: some restrict such powers to voluntary acts, while others affirm them in all events. These, in turn, fall into two groups. Some follow the philosophers who say that God acts by the necessity of His essence, without will or knowledge of particulars. This is false according to both revelation and reason. Others say that Allah creates all of this through His will, knowledge, and power.

This is the position of the early generations of the Muslim community, its leading authorities, and the majority of its scholars. They affirm the powers and natures inherent in concrete things, and affirm that human beings possess genuine power and will. They say that Allah has made these things causes of their effects, and that He acts through them, as He, the Exalted, says:

“Until, when they carry heavy clouds, We drive them to a dead land, then send down rain through them and bring forth through it fruits of every kind.” [al-Aʿrāf: 57]