the polytheists, his fighting against the People of the Book, the justice of Chosroes, Galen’s medicine, and Sībawayh’s grammar. This is illustrated by the fact that people of knowledge and faith know far more of what Allah and His Messenger intend by their words than physicians know of Galen’s words or grammarians of Sībawayh’s words. If someone’s interpretation of the words of Sībawayh, Galen, and others like them is known to be false because it contradicts the understanding held by scholars of medicine, grammar, and arithmetic, then an interpretation of the words of Allah and His Messenger that contradicts the understanding held by people of faith is even more evidently false and unsound, for this is protected from error and safeguarded.

In sum:

It should be understood that what is transmitted from the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, consists of two things: his words and actions, and the meanings of his words and the purposes behind his actions. Both include matters transmitted through numerous independent channels among the general public and specialists alike, matters transmitted in this way among specialists, and matters known only to certain individuals, even though others may be unaware of them or suspect them of being fabricated.

Those versed in his sayings—such as scholars of hadith, transmitted Quranic exegesis, the Prophet’s military campaigns, and jurisprudence—know through numerous independent channels things that are not transmitted in this way among others who do not share their knowledge. Likewise, those versed in the meanings of the Quran and hadith and in their understanding know through numerous independent channels meanings of the sayings and actions transmitted from the Messenger that are not transmitted in this way among others, just as grammarians know through numerous independent channels the statements of al-Khalīl