comparing the arguments of one group with those of the other, and vice versa; morning comes, and I still find neither side more convincing.” He apparently meant the arguments of the speculative theologians and the philosophers.

We have discussed divine oneness and its proofs at length elsewhere, noting that those before us presented as many conclusive rational proofs of it as Allah willed. Yet one wishes to know what others have said and what they have already accomplished. We have explained that the Quran presents the essence of the proofs they offered. It also explains Allah’s exclusive right to worship in ways that many speculative thinkers and worshippers have failed to grasp. Indeed, this is what Allah sent His messengers with and revealed His Books to establish.

[The Different Methods of Proving the Existence of the Creator, Exalted Is He]

As I mentioned, these people divided into those devoted to speculation, reflection, investigation, and argument, and those devoted to spiritual aspiration, worship, devotion, and asceticism. The former ultimately arrived at doubt, and the latter at extravagant spiritual claims.

The former doubt the existence of the Necessary Being, or are unable to establish proof of His existence.

If there were no Necessary Being, nothing would exist, and all existing things would be nonexistent. Thus, their faulty reasoning leads them to regard existing things as nonexistent, or to admit the possibility of their being nonexistent, and to regard the Necessary Being as contingent. To regard what is necessary as contingent is the ultimate form of denial.

The others regard every existing thing as necessarily existent, and regard the existence of each thing as identical to the existence of the Necessary Being. Thus, there is no existence that is