because he has forgotten it. In such a case, the one who differs is excused provided his intention is to follow the truth, and Allah will reward him for that intention. But the person to whom the text has reached, who still remembers it, and for whom no opposing proof exists, is not at liberty to go against it; Allah will not excuse him for abandoning it in deference to anyone, whoever that may be.

At other times the indication carried by the wording is not obvious, so its intended meaning can be confused with another. Here lies the arena in which the mujtahids contend to interpret it, and it is precisely because of this resemblance that disagreement occurs: one scholar (1) derives one meaning from it and interprets the verse accordingly, while another derives a different meaning and interprets it on that basis. Both understandings may be valid and the verse may point to each; the one firmly grounded in knowledge is he who affirms both meanings, whereas the one who upholds one and denies the other is less firmly grounded. It can also be that only one of the two meanings is intended—especially when they are mutually contradictory—and the one firmly grounded in knowledge is the one who attains it. Interpretation in this category is therefore commanded, and its practitioner is rewarded, either with one reward or with two (2).

The Companions disagreed over the interpretation of Allah’s words, “or the one in whose hand lies the knot of matrimony may pardon” (Al-Baqarah 2:235): is the reference to the father or to the husband? (3) They also differed regarding His words, “or you have touched women” (An-Nisa 4:43): does this signify sexual intercourse, or merely physical contact such as touching with the hand, kissing, and the like? (4) And they disagreed about His words, “and do not approach the prayer while you are in a state of major impurity—except those passing through” (An-Nisa 4:43): whether