extends its neck while the other holds its neck high, the matter returns to the same three opinions. If both horses stretch their necks to the same degree, then—should we adopt the forefeet as the criterion—the necks are no longer considered; but if we adopt the neck (1), it would follow that parity of the necks (2) is required.

It is plain how weak this method is, and the statements of al-Shāfiʿī himself give it no support whatsoever.

As for the followers of Aḥmad, they outline three paths (3):

1. Victory is determined by the shoulder. This is the view of Abū ’l-Barakāt Ibn Taymiyyah and others.

2. In camel races the criterion is the shoulder, whereas in horse races, if the necks are equal the decision is by the head, and if the necks differ then by the shoulder. This is the position of Shaykh Abū Muḥammad and those who follow him.

3. In every case the race is decided by the forefeet. This was selected by our teacher Abū ’l-ʿAbbās Ibn Taymiyyah, and likewise by Abū ʿAbd Allāh Ibn Ḥamdān in his Riʿāyah. It is the correct, definitive view, for the start of the course itself is measured by the forefeet, human runners are judged by their feet, and one horse may simply possess a longer body than another—so what do shoulders have to do with deciding the winner?