it is said: “The One is simply a ‘thing,’” as al-Qadi Abu Bakr maintained, then He would not have created anything at all, for He did not create a “one” according to the definition they themselves devised. On his view, none of the angels, human beings, or jinn would even deserve to be called a thing. Yet they still call the practitioners of kalam “the muwahhids” and rename what the early generations used to call kalam the “science of tawḥīd.” Abu al-Maʿali in the opening of his Irshād (1) went so far as to claim that the very first duty laid upon a rational adult who has reached the full (2) legal age of puberty is to embark upon sound reflection that leads to knowledge of the Creator (3) of the universe. He said (4): “In the terminology of the muwahhids, naẓar is the mental contemplation by which the one who engages in it seeks (5) thereby [by it] (6) certain knowledge or a preponderant supposition.”
Furthermore, with respect to the name al-Wāḥid or al-Aḥad, they have assigned to Allah a partner drawn from the most insignificant of existents (7)—the indivisible atom; and the philosophers have added further partners in this regard, namely the intellects and souls, such as the human soul. What we have already mentioned—that the cornerstone of his followers’ position in the issue of the Qur’an and similar questions is their assertion that it is impossible for it to be the locus of events—is something beyond doubt for anyone acquainted with the fundamentals of kalām. Consider, for example, what the foremost of their later scholars, Abu al-Maʿali al-Juwayni, wrote in his Irshād, a work in which he undertook to present decisive proofs, when he said (8):