is that, among the different statements regarding the meaning of tasdiq (affirmation), the sound view is the one that accords with ordinary Arabic usage; for the religious obligation to have iman was conveyed in language that matches that usage. In that usage, to have faith in Allah and His Messenger is to know that Allah and His Messenger are truthful in everything they have reported. More generally, iman in Arabic means to hold as true the statement of the one who relates it. The Sacred Law, however, has raised that affirmation to the level of sure knowledge; mere conviction without knowledge does not suffice, because whoever believes a liar and deems his words true has, linguistically speaking, believed him. For this reason He said, describing the Jews,

“They believe in sorcery and false deities” (1),

that is, they regard them as truthful.”

I say: The purpose here is not to rehearse their contradictions concerning the very definition of iman, nor to discuss whether tasdiq consists in affirming the existence, pre-eternity, and divinity of Allah, as al-Ash‘ari maintained, or whether it is [rather] (2) an affirmation (3) of what He has reported, as others have said; nor is it to explore the inconsistencies found in the words of the author of al-Irshad, who said, “Faith is affirmation of Allah; the believer in Allah is the one who affirms Him,” thereby conflating affirmation of His existence with believing Him in His reports, even though the two realities are distinct (4). There is, in fact, a difference between affirming that something exists and believing it when it speaks. For this reason the Quran differentiates between believing in Allah and His Messenger, and believing the Messenger; the first is to acknowledge them, while the second is to acknowledge him, as in His words:

“But you are not one to be believed by us” (5),

in His words, “He believes in Allah and believes the believers” (6),

and in His words, “We will never believe you” (7).

And he said: