and certain circles among the Sufis as well. These (1) are closer to the pure Ahl al-Sunnah than they are to the Jahmiyyah, the Rāfiḍah, the Khārijites, or the Qadariyyah. Yet a faction has attached itself to them that is, in fact, nearer to the Jahmiyyah than to the pure Sunnis. For these people engage in fierce controversy with the Muʿtazilah over the attributes they affirm, a controversy even sharper than their dispute with the rest of the affirmers over the attributes they deny.
As for the “later scholars” (2), they sided with the Muʿtazilah and drew still closer to them, preferring them to the Sunnis who affirm the attributes; thus they diverged from their own predecessors. Some among them have virtually the same amount of negation and affirmation, and most observers say that such individuals fall into self-contradiction by combining the two positions.
At this third level (3) the debate arose over the issues of letters and sounds, and the meaning that subsists in the divine essence. When the Jahmiyyah (4) introduced the claim that the Quran is created (5), its import was that Allah never described Himself as speaking at all—in reality, that Allah has never spoken and will never speak (6). Their first leader, al-Jaʿd ibn Dirham, stated this openly, asserting that Allah did not take Abraham as an intimate friend and did not speak directly to Moses. Intimacy, he said, can exist only where there is love, and in his view Allah truly loves nothing and nothing truly loves Him (7); therefore He could not have taken anyone as a close friend. By the same token, speech is, in his estimation, impossible for the Lord, exalted be He.