of the prophets, whereas among the Muslims the Qur’an itself and the outward rites—known alike to the common people and to the scholars—have been preserved through mass-transmitted chains.

The same absence of reliable transmission applies to matters such as the Creed that they have made the very cornerstone of their religion, their practice of facing east in prayer, their permission of pork, their abandonment of circumcision, their veneration of the cross, and their placement of images inside churches. None of these rulings is traced back to Christ, nor are they mentioned in the Gospels they ascribe to him.

They are unanimously agreed that the wording of that Creed, which they treat as the foundation of their faith, is found neither in the Gospels nor in any report from the disciples. They also concur that it was composed by the delegates of the First Council convened under Constantine, a gathering attended by 318 bishops. In opposition to ʿAbd Allāh ibn Arius (Arius), who—just as the Muslims affirm—regarded the Messiah as a servant of God, they drafted this very Creed.

That council met more than three hundred years after Christ. A full discussion of the matter belongs elsewhere; the present aim is only to refute their claim that Muhammad—peace and blessings be upon him—confirmed what they possess and, by endorsing their Gospel and the books in their hands, cleared them of any accusation of alteration, substitution, or distortion.