and Matthew. Yet none of those four actually witnessed the Messiah’s crucifixion, nor did any of the disciples—in fact, not a single one of his followers saw it; the only eyewitnesses were a faction of the Jews. Some therefore contend that these Jews knew full well that the person crucified was someone else, yet deliberately lied by claiming they had crucified him, and that the appearance of his crucifixion was merely cast before those to whom they reported it. This is the opinion of a group of speculative theologians—among them the Muʿtazila and others—and it is also the view adopted by Ibn Hazm.