and Abu Yaʿla, Ibn ʿAqil, and others.

The third view—and it is the position of the early Muslims and the leading imams—is that no one is punished unless the message has reached him, and punishment is incurred only by those who oppose the messengers, just as the Qurʾan and the Sunnah both affirm.

The Exalted said to Iblis: “I will surely fill Hell with you and with all who follow you among them.” (Qurʾan 38:85)

Given this, when we debate the People of the Book—whether the earlier generations or the later—we sometimes speak from the first standpoint, demonstrating their divergence from the truth, their ignorance, and their misguidance. This calls their attention to every scriptural and rational proof. At other times we set out their unbelief, for which they deserve punishment in this world and the Hereafter; this