and Galen and the like were not physicians; or he may go on to say, “Kūshyār, al-Khiraqī, and their peers really did master astronomy, while Ptolemy and those similar to him had no knowledge of it at all.”

If someone claims that David, Solomon, Malachi, Amos, and Daniel were prophets but that Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh was not, his contradiction is even more blatant and the falsity of his statement clearer than all of the preceding examples. The same is true of anyone who maintains that Moses and Jesus are messengers, that the Torah and the Gospel are both scriptures revealed from Allah, yet asserts that Muḥammad is not a messenger and that the Qur’an