as well as Suhrawardi, who was put to death in Aleppo, and all those like the two of them among the pseudo-philosophers found in the various religions.

As for the pagan Arabs and those akin to them, they acknowledged the Maker and that He created the heavens and the earth. Consequently, the creed of the Arab idolaters was actually sounder than that of these materialist philosophers, for the Arabs affirmed that the heavens were created by Allah and came into existence after previously not existing.

This is the stance of the overwhelming majority of humanity and of the adherents of the three revealed faiths—Muslims, Jews, and Christians—as well as many among the Magians and other polytheists. By contrast, these materialists among the philosophers and their ilk claim that the heavens are eternal, without beginning.

The Arab polytheists also conceded that Allah is all-powerful, that He acts by His will, and that He answers the prayer of one who calls upon Him. The materialist philosophers, however, insist that Allah does nothing by choice, does not respond to supplication, and is unaware of particulars: He does not distinguish one supplicant from another, nor does He know Abraham from Moses from Muhammad and the rest of His messengers in their individual persons. Indeed, some—such as Aristotle and his followers—categorically deny that He possesses any knowledge at all, while others—like Ibn Sīnā and those of his stripe—maintain that He knows only universals.