, and he did not reside in any fixed place. Prior to that, nothing about him suggested a claim to prophethood, let alone to divinity; thereafter he was taken up to heaven, so he never dwelt with people on the earth.

Likewise, if they say, “His dwelling was His manifestation in the Messiah, peace be upon him,” it is said to them: The sort of manifestation that is rationally conceivable—such as the manifestation of His knowledge, His love, His light, His remembrance, and His worship—does not set the Messiah apart from anyone else. Hence this wording contains nothing to show that the dwelling was confined to the Messiah; and even if it did take place through the Messiah, it would not be one of his exclusive attributes, peace be upon him. Moreover, His appearing in him, or the descent of His knowledge, love, and intellectual exemplar upon him, in no way necessitates that His Essence become united with him.

As for the statement,

“then the Lord shall be a witness over it,”

we say first that God’s witnessing over His servants does not entail His indwelling in, or union with, any of His creatures; rather, He is a Witness over the servants and their deeds, as He says,

“Then God is Witness to what they do” (Yunus 46).

The wording of the text is:

“Let the earth listen, and all who are in it; then the Lord shall be a witness over it.”

This is like what is found in the Torah: when Moses addressed the Children of Israel, he called for witness against them; and likewise Muhammad, may God’s blessings and peace be upon him, used to say to his community, after conveying the message to the people, “Have I not delivered?” They would reply, “Yes,” and he would say—