the hearts of many people whose belief goes no further than affirming Allah’s Lordship (tawḥīd al-rubūbiyyah). I do not wish to burden the courteous reader with a barrage of examples; it is enough, for our purpose here, to reproduce the very words of the author we are refuting. Just a few lines after his previous statement (pp. 21–22) he writes:

“We see the common folk swearing by the saints and uttering about them words whose outward sense is plain, explicit disbelief—in fact, disbelief in its very essence, beyond any doubt whatsoever… Many of the ignorant masses in the Maghrib say things that are outright unbelief concerning our master ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī, may Allah be pleased with him… Among us in the Maghrib are those who claim that the greatest spiritual pole, our master ʿAbd al-Salām ibn Mashīsh, may Allah be pleased with him, is the one who created religion and the world! Others, while the rain was pouring down, exclaimed: ‘O our master ʿAbd al-Salām, show kindness to Your servants!’ This is disbelief!”

I say: Such disbelief is even worse than the unbelief of the pagans, for it openly involves associating partners with Allah in the very sphere of Lordship as well—something that, to our knowledge, even the original idol-worshippers did not commit! As for shirk in the sphere of divinity (tawḥīd al-ulūhiyyah), it is