the conditions of absoluteness and determination? Such a notion exists only in the mind, whereas whatever exists in the external world is necessarily bound by determination.
If someone objects, “It exists externally without the condition of absoluteness,” we answer: Even while it is allegedly free of that condition in the external world, it is still conditioned by determination. Whoever posits that it exists outside the mind while detached from all determination—as the followers of Aristotle, such as Avicenna and Fakhr al-Rāzī, maintain—is no different from the one who claims that it exists outside the mind while detached from existence itself, as the Platonists allege; both positions are erroneous. In the extra-mental world there is no essence devoid of existence, no absolute essence lacking individuation, and no absolute existent without specification.
Once it is clear that no absolute essence exists outside the mind, it is invalid to say that, in the external realm, a man is a man by virtue of an absolute essence. Rather, he is a man by virtue of something other than an absolute essence—namely, a particular, individuated essence—and that essence is not a cause separate from his own determinate reality. Hence we can discern the flaw in their classification, as Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 505 AH) pointed out, without having to treat the notion of necessary existence as a purely negative concept, for such a reading is unsound. Even if it were negative, what is negated of a thing may belong to it by virtue of its very essence or by virtue of a cause external to it. Just as positive predicates can be assigned in both ways, so too can certain negations. Thus, when we say that a thing’s independence from a cause is intrinsic to its very essence—just as the Lord’s independence of all else is intrinsic to His Essence—this is not a denial.
God, exalted be He, is described with attributes of perfection, which comprise both the affirmation of laudable qualities and the negation of their opposites; both categories pertain to Him necessarily by virtue of His Essence, which demands the affirmation of the one and the negation of the other.
Second aspect: To expose the sophistry in this matter one may say: their statement