Section
A claim is valid only when it is set out with precision, the object of the claim being clearly specified—except in matters where ambiguity is legally tolerated, such as a testamentary bequest, a dowry, or the compensation paid in a khulʿ divorce, provided the wording contains nothing that would contradict it.

Anyone who alleges—or testifies to—a marriage contract, a sale, or the like must mention the conditions attached to it. If a woman claims marriage in order to demand her dowry, maintenance, or similar rights, her claim is heard; otherwise it is not. Whoever claims an inheritance must specify the basis of his claim, and whoever alleges a killing must describe it.

For testimony to be accepted, the witnesses must be proven upright both outwardly and inwardly in all cases other than marriage. If the judge is uncertain about their integrity, he inquires; if he knows it, he acts upon it. Should the opposing party impeach the witnesses, he is required to substantiate his charge; if he asks, he is given three days, and the plaintiff may keep him under supervision. If he fails to produce evidence, judgment is rendered against him.

Certification of witnesses, impeachment, interpreting, and identifying a person before the judge are treated as testimony, as will be detailed later.

A suit is not heard against someone who is in town or nearby until he appears before the court. If he conceals himself, however, the claim and the evidence are heard in his absence, and judgment is issued against him as though he were an absentee at the distance that permits shortening the prayer; when he later appears, he still retains the right to present his proof.

The written communication of one judge to another is admissible (1) in every civil matter, even in cases of slander, though not in cases of fornication and the like. The judge who writes it reads it aloud before two men of acknowledged integrity (2) and has them testify to it.