even their humblest member.”

The qadi said: In the days of ignorance people would enter into mutual pacts. A man would say to another, “My blood is your blood; my ruin is your ruin; my vengeance is your vengeance; my war is your war and my peace is your peace. You inherit from me and I from you. If anyone demands satisfaction from me, you are answerable, and if they demand it from you, I am answerable. You pay the blood-money for me and I for you.” They counted an ally who had joined their covenant as one of their own clan, granting him—and binding him with—whatever benefits and liabilities the pact entailed.

When Islam arrived, it endorsed those elements that preserved life, aided against the enemy, upheld covenants, and fostered harmony among people, while it annulled all that conflicted with Islamic rulings: revolts, assuming liability for criminal blood-money, and taking on financial burdens that the scriptures specify for particular individuals, designated parties, and clearly defined causes.