enjoyed Companionship with the Prophet; he was the second child born after the advent of Islam, coming after ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Zubayr.

– Fitān: the plural of fitnah (trial/tribulation). The word is used for many things: the fitnah of self-admiration and infatuation, the fitnah of wealth, Satanic fitnah, testing and punishment, and the fitnah of wars and armed conflict—the latter is most likely what is intended here.

What is drawn from the ḥadīth
This report involves several issues that may be summarized as follows:

1 – The Muslims’ voice must gather around a single imam, whether he is just or unjust. If a faction possessing strength rises against him, seeking to break the staff of obedience and rebel against the ruler, the ruler must first correspond with them. Should they refuse to comply and terrorize the Muslims, he is obliged to fight them to repel their harm, and the subjects must stand with him and fight those rebels until they desist and return to Allah’s command and to obedience.

Muslim also narrated (1852) from ʿArfajah who said: “I heard the Messenger of Allah ﷺ say, ‘When someone comes to you while your affair is united under one man, wanting to break your unity or disperse your congregation—kill him.’ ”

Muslim likewise narrated (1844) from ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿUmar that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said: “Whoever pledges allegiance to an imam, placing his hand in his and giving him the sincerity of his heart, must obey him as far as he can. If another comes to dispute his authority, strike the neck of the latter.”

This is the duty of the subjects toward the standing imam when someone contends with him, seeking to annul his pledge or oppose him.

2 – The duty of the Muslim governors is to exercise justice, uprightness, and sincere counsel for the subjects, along with whatever else public leadership entails. Al-Bukhārī (2409) and Muslim (1829) relate on the authority of Ibn ʿUmar that the Prophet ﷺ said, “All of you are shepherds,”