or by one of His essential attributes—such as Allah’s might, majesty, or grandeur. The sole exception is the phrase, “And Allah knows,” for that is not deemed an oath. Likewise, if someone swears by an attribute of divine action, such as Allah’s anger or displeasure, it is not a binding oath.

Whoever swears by anything other than Allah is not considered to have sworn: swearing by the Prophet, the Qur’an, or the Kaʿbah carries no legal weight.

As for the particles of swearing, they are three: the wāw, as in “wallāhi” (By Allah); the bāʾ, as in “billāhi”; and the tāʾ, as in “tallāhi.” Even when the particle is omitted the statement remains an oath, as in, “Allah, I shall not do such-and-such.” Abū Ḥanīfa held, however, that saying “wa ḥaqq Allāh” (by the right of Allah) is not an oath.

If one says, “uqsim” (I swear), “uqsimu billāh” (I swear by Allah), “uḥlifu billāh” (I make an oath by Allah), “ashhad” (I testify), or “ashhadu billāh” (I testify by Allah), he is deemed to have sworn. The same ruling applies to the expressions, “By Allah’s covenant,” “by His pact,” “it is a vow upon me,” “a vow for Allah,” or, “If I do such-and-such, then I am a Jew, a Christian, or a disbeliever”—all constitute oaths.

By contrast, statements such as “May Allah’s anger be upon me,” “His wrath,” “I shall be an adulterer, a wine-drinker, or an usurer” are not oaths.

The expiation for a broken oath is to free a slave; any slave that would suffice for the expiation of ẓihār suffices here as well.

Alternatively, he may clothe ten poor persons, giving each at least one garment—the minimum being a garment in which prayer is valid—or feed ten poor persons, following the measure prescribed for the expiation of ẓihār. If he cannot manage any of these three options, he must fast three consecutive days. Should he offer the expiation before actually breaking the oath, it will not be accepted.

Whoever swears to commit a sinful act—such as vowing not to pray, not to speak to his father, or to kill someone—should break the oath and then make expiation.

If a non-Muslim makes an oath and then breaks it, whether while still an unbeliever or after embracing Islam, no liability is incurred.

If a person declares something he owns forbidden to himself, the item does not become intrinsically unlawful; but once he makes use of it, the expiation of an oath becomes obligatory. Should he say, “Everything lawful is forbidden to me,” the statement applies to food and drink unless he intends something else.

Whoever makes an unconditional vow must fulfill it.

If he makes the vow contingent on a condition and that condition occurs, he must carry out exactly what he vowed. It is reported that Abū Ḥanīfa later retracted this position and said: If someone says, “If…"