—with the exception of an animal’s private parts. Touching the private part of a corpse, that of a small child, the site of castration, or a paralysed penis likewise nullifies ablution; the same ruling applies when the contact is made with a paralysed hand, according to the sounder view. Contact with the tips of the fingers or the spaces between them does not break ablution.

While in a state of minor impurity it is forbidden to perform the ritual prayer, to circumambulate the Kaʿbah, to carry the mushaf, or to touch its pages; the same ruling, on the preponderant opinion, extends to its binding, to any satchel or box that contains it, and to a writing tablet prepared for Qur’anic study. The stronger position allows one to carry the mushaf when it is stowed among one’s luggage, enclosed in a commentary, or stamped on gold coins, but not to turn its pages with a stick; nor is a child without ablution to be prevented from doing so.

I say: the sounder opinion is that turning its pages with a stick is permissible, and this is the decisive view of the Iraqi scholars—Allah knows best.

Anyone who is certain either of purity or of impurity and then doubts the contrary acts on what he is certain of. If he is certain that both states have occurred but is unsure which came first, then, on the sounder view, he treats himself as being in the state opposite to the one he recalls preceding them.

Section

The one entering the lavatory steps in with the left foot first; on leaving, with the right. He should not take inside anything bearing the name of Allah Most High. When seated he leans on his left side, and he must neither face nor turn his back to the qiblah—both are forbidden in open country. He should go far enough to be out of view and shield himself. He must not urinate into stagnant water, a burrow, the direction of the wind, a place where people converse, a roadway, or beneath a fruit-bearing tree. He does not speak there, nor perform istinjāʾ with water at the very spot, and he must ensure that no urine remains.

On entering he says, “In the name of Allah. O Allah, I seek refuge in You from male and female devils,” and on leaving, “Your forgiveness. Praise be to Allah who has removed harm from me and granted me health.”

Istinjāʾ is obligatory with water or with a stone, and combining both is preferable. Whatever is solid, pure, removes the filth, and is not revered takes the place of a stone; tanned leather qualifies, unlike untanned hide, on the preponderant view. The use of a stone is valid only if the impurity has not dried, spread, or been contaminated by an external substance. Even when it is slight or has spread more than usual, so long as it does not go beyond the surrounding skin or the glans, the use of a stone remains permissible on the sounder opinion. It is obligatory