and for someone in a complete state of purity to pray behind a woman with irregular bleeding (mustahāḍah) who is not in the perplexed category (mutaḥayyirah). If it later becomes clear that the imam was a woman, or an openly-disbelieving person—some say even a covert one—the prayer must be repeated; not, however, if the imam merely turned out to be in a state of major ritual impurity (junub) or was carrying an unseen defilement.

I say: the sounder view, borne out by the textual evidence and endorsed by the majority, is that covert disbelief in this context is treated exactly like open disbelief; Allah knows best.

According to the stronger opinion, an illiterate imam is governed by the same ruling as a woman. If a person follows an intersex individual (khunthā) who later proves to be male, the obligation to repeat the prayer is not waived, on the more apparent view.

An upright imam is preferable to one who openly violates the law, and the sounder view is that the one more learned in jurisprudence (afqah) has priority over the better reciter (aqraʾ) and the more scrupulous (awraʿ). The more learned and the better reciter outrank the elder of noble lineage, whereas in the ‘new’ opinion the elder is given precedence over the well-born. If they are equal, preference is granted for cleaner clothing and body, a finer voice, superior recitation, and the like.

Whoever has a right of use—through ownership or its equivalent—has priority; should he be unqualified, the right to appoint another remains his. He is preferred over his resident slave, though not over a slave who is paying for his freedom (mukātib) while living on his property. The sounder ruling is that the lessee (muktarī) has precedence over the lessor (mukrī), and the lender (muʿīr) over the borrower (mustāʿir). Within his jurisdiction, the governor enjoys precedence even over the most learned jurist and the owner of the property.

Section
A follower must not stand ahead of his imam. If he does, his prayer is invalid according to the new school; standing level with the imam does not invalidate the prayer, though it is recommended to remain slightly behind, alignment being measured by the heels.

In the Sacred Mosque they form concentric rows around the Kaʿbah, and according to the sounder opinion it is of no consequence if some worshippers are nearer to the Kaʿbah on a side other than that of the imam. The same holds true if both imam and follower are inside the Kaʿbah but facing different directions.

A single male worshipper stands on the imam’s right. If another man arrives, he begins the prayer on the imam’s left, after which the imam may step forward or both men may step back; the latter is preferable. If two men, or a man and a boy, arrive together they form a row behind the imam, and the same applies to a single woman or a group of women.

Behind the imam stand the men, then the boys, and then the women; when women pray behind a woman, their imam stands in the middle of their row.

It is disliked for a lone worshipper to stand by himself; he should enter the row if space permits, otherwise he should, after the opening takbīr, pull someone back to join him, and the one pulled must cooperate. A further condition is that he be able to follow the imam’s movements.