which shows that a Muslim may inherit from his Christian freedman; by analogy, the reverse also applies, namely that a Christian, for instance, may inherit from his Muslim freedman.

3. The third opinion holds that a non-Muslim relative may inherit from his Muslim kinsman if he embraces Islam before the estate is divided. The evidence is the ḥadith: “Every division effected in the pre-Islamic period (jahiliyyah) remains as it was divided, and every division reached by Islam is to be apportioned according to Islam.” This ḥadith indicates that if a non-Muslim converts before the inheritance of his Muslim relative is distributed, he is entitled to a share.

4. The fourth opinion states that a Muslim may inherit from a non-Muslim, but not the other way around. Its proof is the ḥadith: “Islam adds and does not detract.” Allowing the Muslim to inherit from the non-Muslim is an increase, whereas denying him that share would be a decrease; the ḥadīth therefore suggests that Islam brings increase, not diminution.

The strongest view—Allah knows best—is the first: there is no mutual inheritance between a Muslim and a non-Muslim. Its proof is both sound and explicit, whereas the evidences for the other opinions are either weak or ambiguous and thus cannot override the proof for the first view.

Issue Two: Inheritance among non-Muslims themselves

Non-Muslims fall into two situations:

First: they share the same religion—for example, one Jew with another, or one Christian with another. In this case there is unanimous agreement that they may inherit from one another.