and he led them in prayer, signaling the movements with slight gestures—his prostration lower than his bowing. Narrated by Ahmad and al-Tirmidhi.

Anyone who, because of one of the foregoing excuses, performs an obligatory prayer while mounted must face the qiblah if he can, for Allah the Exalted says, “So wherever you may be, turn your faces toward it.” He is also required to carry out whatever aspects of bowing, prostration, their accompanying gestures, and composure he is able to, because Allah says, “So fear Allah as much as you can.” What lies beyond his capacity is not imposed upon him. If he is unable to face the qiblah, the obligation is lifted and he prays in whatever direction his circumstances dictate.

The same applies to a passenger on an airplane: he prays on board according to his ability—standing or sitting, bowing and prostrating, or merely indicating them—while facing the qiblah, for that is possible.

Third: The prayer of the traveler

Among those afforded a concession is the traveler. He is permitted to shorten the four-rakʿah prayers to two, as this is established by the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the consensus of the scholars.