judgment is therefore not given on the basis of his claim alone, but on the strength of the witness whose testimony, combined with the oath, tips the balance in his favor. End of quotation.

As for matters to which men normally have no access—such as physical defects concealed beneath a woman’s clothing, whether she is a virgin or previously married, her menstruation, childbirth, breastfeeding, the first cry of a newborn, and similar issues—the testimony of a single upright woman is accepted. Hudhayfah reported that “the Prophet ﷺ approved the testimony of a lone midwife,” a report transmitted by al-Daraqutni and others, though its chain of transmission has been critiqued. The Prophet ﷺ likewise accepted the testimony of one woman concerning breastfeeding, as recorded in the two Ṣaḥīḥs.