In addition, the claim must be free of any element that contradicts it. Thus, a lawsuit accusing someone of having committed murder or theft twenty years ago is invalid if the defendant is clearly younger than that, for ordinary perception falsifies the allegation.

If the plaintiff asserts the existence of a contract of sale or of lease, he must specify the stipulations of that contract, because people differ in the conditions they set and the agreement he describes may not be recognized as valid by the judge.

Likewise, when one claims an inheritance, the legal cause of that inheritance must be stated, for the causes vary and must therefore be identified.

For a claim to be valid the object claimed must, if it is present in the courtroom or at least in the same town, be individually identified so that all ambiguity is removed. If the object is absent, it must be described with the precision required in a salam (forward sale), mentioning the characteristics that definitively fix its identity.

Testimony is accepted only when the witnesses are upright, in keeping with Allah’s words: “And call to witness two just men from among you” (Q 65:2); “from among those you approve as witnesses” (Q 2:282); and, “O you who believe, if a sinner brings you news, verify it” (Q 49:6).

The jurists—may Allah have mercy on them—differed on whether both the outward and the inward integrity of the witnesses must be established or whether outward integrity alone suffices. The preponderant view is that apparent uprightness is enough, for the Messenger of Allah—peace and blessings be upon him—accepted the testimony of a Bedouin, and ʿUmar—may Allah be pleased with him—stated, “The Muslims are upright.”