addressed to another judge concerning judicial matters unless two witnesses testify to its contents.

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The surveyor‐divider (qāsim) must meet seven conditions: Islam, legal adulthood, sound intellect, freedom, maleness, upright character, and competence in arithmetic. If the two partners agree on someone to divide the property between them, these conditions are not required. Where the division involves appraisal, it may not be entrusted to fewer than two people. If one partner invites the other to divide property whose division will cause no harm, the other is obliged to accept.

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If the claimant produces admissible evidence, the judge listens to it and rules in his favor. If he has no evidence, the defendant’s statement is accepted after he swears an oath. Should the defendant refuse to swear, the oath is transferred to the claimant; if he then swears, he acquires the right. When both parties claim an item that is in the possession of one of them, the possessor’s statement is accepted with his oath. If the item is in their joint possession, they both swear and the property is divided between them. Whoever swears about his own action must swear emphatically and unequivocally. Whoever swears about another’s action—if affirming—must likewise swear emphatically and unequivocally; if denying, he swears that he has no knowledge of it.

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Testimony is accepted only from one who possesses five qualities: Islam, legal adulthood, sound intellect, freedom, and upright character. Upright character itself has five requirements: avoiding major sins; not persisting in minor sins; an inner state free of malice; being trustworthy even when angry; and maintaining the standards of propriety expected of his peers.

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Rights are of two kinds: the rights of Allah Most High and the rights of human beings. As for the rights