and they pray behind him while seated—this is recommended. If, however, he began the prayer standing and then fell ill and sat down, the congregation must remain standing behind him; this is obligatory.

The prayer is valid behind someone who suffers from chronic urinary incontinence when the follower has the same excuse. It is not valid behind a person in minor ritual impurity or one whose body or clothing is defiled if he is aware of that state. If both imam and follower remain unaware until the prayer ends, it is valid for the follower alone. Should someone in a state of major ritual impurity lead others, he must repeat his own prayer, whereas the congregation’s prayer remains sound.

The leadership of an illiterate imam is invalid. An illiterate imam is one who cannot recite al-Fātiḥah correctly, assimilates sounds where assimilation is impermissible, substitutes one letter for another,1 or makes a grammatical error that alters the meaning—except when leading someone like himself. If he is able to correct his recitation yet fails to do so, his own prayer is invalid.

It is disliked for a habitual recitation-fault (lahḥān), a stutterer (faʾfāʾ or tammām), or anyone unable to pronounce certain letters to lead the prayer. Likewise, it is discouraged for a man to lead one or more unrelated women when no other man is present, or to lead a congregation the majority of whom, for a valid reason, dislike him.

The leadership of a person born out of wedlock or of a soldier is valid, provided their religious integrity is sound. One performing an obligatory prayer in its time may lead those making it up and vice versa, but an obligatory prayer may not be led by someone praying a voluntary prayer, nor may someone praying Ẓuhr follow an imam praying ʿAṣr or any other distinct obligatory prayer.

Section

The followers stand behind the imam. It is also valid for a single follower to stand at his right, or on both his sides, but never ahead of him—even if the imam is seated—and not solely on his left. A lone worshipper may not stand by himself behind the imam or behind a row, except in the case of a woman. When women conduct their own congregation, the female imam stands in the middle of their row. In mixed congregations the men stand directly behind the imam, followed by the boys, and then the women, mirroring the order observed in funeral prayers.