—must likewise be denied of the Lord, exalted be He, a fortiori. He is more entitled to every positive perfection of existence than any created being, whereas qualities that amount to mere non-existence rightly attach to the contingent creature, and the like.
These are the lines of reasoning the early generations and the leading scholars habitually employed in matters of this sort. Imam Ahmad relied on them, as did those before him and those who followed him among the imams of Islam. The Quran itself adopts this very method when it sets forth the fundamentals of the religion—questions of tawḥīd, the divine attributes, the Resurrection, and so forth.
Take, for example, His affirmation of the Resurrection. Certainty about it hinges on knowing that it is possible, for what is impossible cannot occur. Accordingly, He clarified its possibility in the most decisive manner, without resorting to the method used by some schools of kalām who attempt to establish real (external) possibility on the basis of mere conceptual possibility. They argue: “This is possible, because if we suppose it to exist, no contradiction follows from that supposition.” The real issue, however, lies in that very premise: how do we know that no contradiction follows from positing its existence? “Contradiction” here includes both what is impossible in itself and what is impossible on account of something else. Conceptual possibility is nothing more than the mind’s not knowing that a thing is impossible. Yet ignorance of impossibility does not amount to knowledge of real, external possibility; the matter remains in the mind neither known to be impossible nor known to be actually possible. That is what is meant by conceptual possibility.
Hence Allah, glorified be He, did not content Himself, in demonstrating the possibility of the Resurrection, with such an argument alone. A thing may still be impossible—if only for an extrinsic reason—even though the mind is unaware of its impossibility. Real, external possibility, once established, rules out impossibility altogether. And man