by the dictates of reason, revelation, and the unanimous judgment of sound minds. Hence no nation has ever affirmed a being that resembles Allah in every respect; at most, those who draw a comparison liken Him to something else in certain limited aspects.
– If, however, they intend by their words to deny that there is any common denominator at all between the attributes of the Creator and those of the creature—while conceding that each remains distinct in what is unique to it, and this is indeed what they mean—then their claim is false. It is rationally necessary that any two self-subsisting entities share something in common, even as each is set apart by what is peculiar to it: both fall under the notion of existence, of having an essence, of being self-subsistent, and the like. To deny this shared ground is pure nullification.
Holding to that meaning does not prevent certain people from stripping Allah of the perfect attributes that are His due, for they imagine that affirming such attributes entails similarity. As has already been noted, the negators among the Jahmiyyah, Muʿtazilah, and others folded the denial of the attributes into the very definition of tawḥīd and said, “Whoever affirms for Allah knowledge, power, or the like is an anthropomorphist, not a monotheist.” The extremist philosophers and the Qarmaṭians went further and made the negation of the divine names themselves part of tawḥīd, declaring, “Whoever says that Allah is knowing, powerful, and so forth is an anthropomorphist, not a monotheist.” The extremists of the extremists went beyond even this, asserting that Allah is not to be described by anything entailing affirmation or negation; whoever either negates an attribute from Him or affirms one for Him is, in their eyes, an anthropomorphist and not a monotheist!
A refutation of these groups has already been presented at the beginning of this treatise—praise be to Allah.
Fourth aspect: their statement, “Single in His actions, He has no partner.” This is the most famous type of tawḥīd among them. By it they merely mean that the Creator of the universe is one, and they suppose that this is the tawḥīd that is required and that it is the meaning of la ilaha illa Allah, construing it to mean, “No one is able to originate creation except Allah.”
It is clear that this is mistaken in two respects: