(28:38). That was sheer defiance, not a creed born of conviction; in his heart he knew that Allah is the Lord of the heavens and the earth. For that reason he did not accuse Moses of lying when the prophet said to him, “You know full well that none has sent down these signs but the Lord of the heavens and the earth as clear proofs. Indeed, O Pharaoh, I think you are doomed” (17:102). Consider also Allah’s words about Pharaoh and his people: “They rejected them, although their own souls were convinced of them, out of wrongdoing and arrogance. So look at how the end of the corrupters was!” (27:14).

• As for those who claim that some happenings are created by other than Allah—such as the Qadariyyah, who contend that human beings create their own acts—they nevertheless acknowledge that the servants are themselves created and that Allah, exalted is He, is their Creator and the Creator of their capacities.

• The same applies to the philosophers, naturalists, and astrologers who attribute certain effects to created entities: they still believe that these alleged agents are themselves originated and contingent.

Thus it is clear that no one has ever maintained that the universe has two makers equal in power and attributes.