among the unlettered a messenger from among themselves.’ (1)

He adds elsewhere, commenting again on the same question: “I say: What prevents us from accepting that the Prophet ﷺ might have acquired a small measure of writing after previously being unlettered and unaware of it? Perhaps, owing to the frequent dictations he gave to the scribes of revelation, of the Sunnah, and of the letters addressed to kings, he came to recognize handwriting, comprehend it, and even write a word or two—just as he wrote his noble name on the Day of Ḥudaybiyyah, ‘Muhammad ibn ʿAbd Allah.’ Writing so little does not disqualify him from being counted among the unlettered, just as many kings are regarded as illiterate yet still sign their mark.” (2)

Such observations appear frequently in al-Dhahabi’s works.

From his biography we know that al-Dhahabi adhered to the creed of the Salaf, an outlook shaped by the Damascene milieu and by his companionship with Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyyah.

Although al-Dhahabi was not enthusiastic about delving into the narrow recesses of creedal disputation—considering silence on such matters preferable and safer (3)—he nevertheless expressed his views in many places and authored works on the subject.

He deemed Muʿtazilism an innovation (4) and launched vigorous attacks against the Greek philosophers (5).

He was deeply impressed by the deeds and achievements of the early generations (6), and he devoted great attention to recording the tribulations that befell the scholars when al-Maʾmun promulgated his view and compelled people to affirm the createdness of the Quran, highlighting their courageous stances in that ordeal (7).