the Messenger of Allah would, whenever he appointed a commander over an army or a detachment, urge him to treat the Muslims under his command well. He then mentioned the hadith, which states that when he encountered his enemy, he would call him to Islam; if he refused, he would demand the jizyah from him; and if he refused, he would fight him. This is general in scope. Indeed, he said: “When you meet your enemy among the polytheists.” The correct view is that the jizyah may be taken from every disbeliever. Thus, with those at war, we have only two possible courses: fighting or their submission to the jizyah—unless they embrace Islam.

Second are those bound by treaty: those with whom we enter into an agreement that they will not aggress against us, nor we against them; that they will not aid others against us, nor we against them. Their situation may take one of three forms:

The first is that they remain true to the treaty and fulfil it completely. In this case, we are obliged to remain true to them, for Allah the Exalted says:

“Except for those with whom you made a treaty at the Sacred Mosque: so long as they remain true to you, remain true to them. Surely Allah loves those who are mindful of Him.” [al-Tawbah 9:7]

There is no doubt that honouring their treaty is among the virtues of Islam.

The second is that they betray the treaty and violate it. In this case, they become belligerents—that is, their treaty is nullified. Evidence for this is what occurred with Quraysh when the Prophet made a treaty with them at Hudaybiyyah. Among the terms of the treaty was that they would not assist anyone against him or his allies, yet they violated the treaty by assisting their allies against the allies of the Prophet (1).

The third is that they do not violate the treaty, but we do not feel secure from them and fear—