A third group adopted governance: that is, safeguarding interests that do not conflict with the sacred law. Although we say that nothing described as an interest can possibly conflict with the sacred law; rather, whatever conflicts with the sacred law is harmful. We use this expression only because something may appear beneficial to an observer, while he fails to realize that it is already encompassed by the sacred law.

Thus, in internal governance, the imam or caliph must consider whatever serves the public interest and act accordingly.

As for external governance, it concerns dealings with non-Muslims, with whom he has four possible relationships: covenant, safe-conduct, protected status, and war.

First are those at war, whose case is clear. He must fight them until religion is wholly for Allah—either they embrace Islam or pay the jizyah directly, in a state of submission. According to the stronger view, there is no distinction in this regard between the People of the Book and others. As for Allah’s statement:

“Fight those who do not believe in Allah or the Last Day, who do not regard as forbidden what Allah and His Messenger have forbidden, and who do not follow the religion of truth—from among those who were given the Scripture—until they pay the jizyah directly, in a state of submission.” [al-Tawbah 9:29]

this does not preclude the ruling from extending to others, especially since it is established in Sahih al-Bukhari that the Prophet took the jizyah from the Magians of Hajar (1), and it is established in Sahih Muslim (2) that