people of knowledge, who may think they are one and the same, though they differ. Calling to Allah consists of presenting the message, encouraging, and warning; commanding means directing an order—that is, requiring an action or requiring one to refrain, from a position of authority; while changing evil means directly removing the evil with one’s hand. There is therefore a distinction between them that the student of knowledge must know, lest matters become confused for him.

The ruler must uphold governance, which means pursuing everything by which the people’s affairs are set right. It is either internal or external.

As for internal governance, it means governing one’s subjects with justice, avoiding oppression, acting upon circumstantial indications and clear proofs, and so forth. Thus, for example, he should not distinguish between those who are near and those who are distant, the rich and the poor, the noble and the lowly, and the like—unless the public interest calls for him, for instance, to pardon a man of status and standing. This applies outside the prescribed punishments; while he may impose a discretionary punishment upon another criminal who continually assaults people and for whom a gracious pardon is of no benefit. Hence Allah, Most High, says:

“Whoever pardons and makes reconciliation, his reward is with Allah.” [al-Shura 42:40]

With regard to governance, the caliphs fell into three categories:

One group adopted a policy of oppression: whenever they found something said to benefit the people, they acted upon it, even if it contravened the sacred law. Such were the oppressive rulers who transgress against people through beatings and imprisonment over minor matters for which the sacred law does not permit punishment of that severity.

A second group neglected governance altogether. They neither acted upon the indications of circumstances nor implemented the public interests recognized by the sacred law. The former went to excess, while these fell short.