were to sit, we would say: Stand while leaning on a stick, a wall, a pillar, or another person. This is why the author simply said, “standing,” without qualification.

“If he is unable, then seated …”

His statement, “If he is unable,” means: if standing is beyond his capability—because he is incapable of it—then he prays seated, due to the words of Allah, “So fear Allah as much as you are able” [al-Taghabun 64:16], and His words, “Allah does not burden a soul beyond its capacity” [al-Baqarah 2:286], and the Prophet’s saying to Imran ibn Husayn: “Pray standing; if you are unable, then seated.” (1) The first two proofs are general, whereas the third relates specifically to the prayer itself.

The apparent meaning of his statement, “If he is unable,” is that sitting is only permitted in the case of incapacity; as for hardship, it does not permit one to sit.

However, the correct view is that hardship permits one to sit. Thus, if standing is difficult for him, he prays seated, due to the words of Allah, “Allah intends for you ease and does not intend for you hardship” [al-Baqarah 2:185]. Just as a sick person may break his fast when fasting is difficult for him, even though he is able to fast, so too here: if standing is difficult, he prays seated. But what is the criterion for hardship? For at times a person may be fatigued and sleep-deprived, making standing difficult for him.

The answer is that the criterion for hardship is that it causes him to lose khushu‘ (attentive humility). Khushu‘ consists of the heart being present and being at ease. So if, when he stands, he becomes intensely restless and unable to settle, and you find him wishing to reach the end of al-Fatihah so that he may bow because of the severe strain he is enduring, then standing has become difficult for him, and he may pray seated.