This phenomenon was already present during the lifetime of the Messenger—may blessings and peace be upon him—and it has remained after him (1); indeed, it is even more widespread after his passing than it was in his own time (2), for the factors that made faith binding in his day were stronger. If, despite that strength, hypocrisy (3) still existed, its presence when those factors are weaker is all the more likely.

Just as he—may blessings and peace be upon him—knew some of the hypocrites while remaining unaware of others, as indicated by the divine words: “Among those around you of the desert Arabs are hypocrites, and among the people of Madinah are those who persist in hypocrisy; you do not know them, but We know them” (Q 9:101), so too his successors and scholarly heirs after him may recognise some (4) hypocrites while not knowing others (5).

Across all groups that lay claim to Islam—both elite and common—there are many hypocrites, and they are called zanādiqa (sing. zindīq).

Scholars have differed over whether their outward repentance should be accepted, for the reality of it cannot be known; they always display Islam publicly. Such people are numerous among the so-called philosophers—especially astrologers and the like—then among physicians, and somewhat fewer among scribes. They are also found among certain Sufis, jurists, ⦗53⦘ soldiers, commanders, and even among the general populace (6).

Yet they abound even more within the sects of innovation, particularly among the Rāfiḍa, for among them are those who