its opposite. This legal sense is narrower than the linguistic sense of nifāq, for in ordinary Arabic the term is broader than the mere outward display of religion. Concealing (1) something that conflicts with the faith may amount either to outright unbelief or to grave disobedience. When someone professes faith while inwardly denying it (2), this is the major hypocrisy (nifāq al-akbar); its perpetrator has been warned that he will dwell “in the lowest abyss of the Fire.” If, however, he claims to be truthful, loyal, or trustworthy while harbouring falsehood, treachery, betrayal, and the like, this is the minor hypocrisy (nifāq al-aṣghar), and its perpetrator is deemed a flagrant sinner. Originally, applying the word nifāq to both cases is univocal.

Accordingly, nifāq is a generic term that comprises two kinds. At times it refers to hypocrisy that undermines the very foundation of faith, as in His words: “Indeed, the hypocrites will be in the lowest abyss of the Fire” (Q 4:145), and “When the hypocrites come to you they say, ‘We bear witness that you are truly the Messenger of Allah.’ Allah knows that you are His Messenger, and Allah bears witness that the hypocrites are surely liars” (Q 63:1). In these verses the word “hypocrite” (3) denotes an unbeliever.

At other times it denotes hypocrisy in its subsidiary aspects [ق 42], as in the Prophet’s ﷺ saying, “The sign of the hypocrite is three” (4), and his saying, “Four traits—whoever possesses them is a pure hypocrite” (5). Ibn ʿUmar, speaking of a man who would report something to the governors and then come out and say the opposite (6), said: “We used to regard this…"